Blog
The Second World War resulted in the deaths of around 85 million people. Additionally, tens of millions more people were displaced. However, amid all the carnage, people demonstrated remarkable courage, fortitude, compassion, mercy and sacrifice. We want to honour and celebrate all of those people. In the War Years Blog, we examine the extraordinary experiences of individual service personnel. We also review military history books, events, and museums. We also look at the history of unique World War II artefacts, medals, and anything else of interest.
Operation Anthropoid: Heroes Who Refused to Surrender
This article recounts Operation Anthropoid, the 1942 assassination of Nazi leader Reinhard Heydrich by Czech resistance fighters Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš. Despite brutal Nazi reprisals including the destruction of Lidice, the mission proved that resistance continued and helped secure international support for post-war Czechoslovakia. The piece draws parallels between the Munich Agreement's betrayal and contemporary geopolitical situations.
Authors: Martina Gregorcová, Art of Your Travel, and Charlie Trumpess, The War Years
On 30 September 1938, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain returned to Heston Aerodrome brandishing a piece of paper and declaring he had achieved “peace for our time.” This followed the Munich Crisis, when the leader of Nazi Germany, Adolph Hitler, threatened to invade Czechoslovakia. Chamberlain visited Germany three times in an attempt to avert war. The resulting Munich Agreement, signed by Germany, Britain, France, and Italy, gave Hitler the Sudetenland, a border region of Czechoslovakia containing about three million ethnic Germans.
British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, after landing at Heston Aerodrome following his meeting with Adolf Hitler and the signing of the infamous Munich Agreement. This photograph , D 2239, comes from the collections of the Imperial War Museums.
The agreement represented the climax of Britain’s appeasement policy, which sought to avoid war by making territorial concessions to Nazi Germany. Czechoslovakia was entirely betrayed in this process, with Czech diplomats excluded from the negotiations and barred from the conference room at Hitler's insistence.
Czech leader Edvard Beneš warned that losing the heavily fortified Sudetenland would leave his nation defenceless. Nevertheless, Britain and France forced Czechoslovakia to choose between resisting Germany alone or submitting to territorial dismemberment. Hitler claimed the Sudetenland was his “last territorial demand in Europe,” but these promises proved worthless.
On 15 March 1939, Nazi Germany violated the Munich Agreement and occupied the remainder of Czechoslovakia, establishing the Protectorates of Bohemia and Moravia. Slovakia became a puppet state under the leadership of pro-Nazi Jozef Gašpar Tiso. Britain’s appeasement policy had disastrously failed, and a full-scale European war began when Germany invaded Poland.
Into Exile
On 5 October 1938, Beneš was forced to resign. He went into exile in Britain, where he organised the Czechoslovak National Liberation Committee, which declared itself the Provisional Government of Czechoslovakia the following year. In July 1940, the UK officially recognised the Czechoslovak government-in-exile, with Jan Šrámek as prime minister and Beneš as president. Beneš started working with British military intelligence in return for concessions to his government-in-exile.
In 1941, Edvard Beneš and František Moravec, working with MI6 and the Special Operations Executive (SOE), planned Operation Anthropoid to assassinate Reinhard Heydrich, the Deputy Reich Protector of Bohemia and Moravia.
Three Parachute Drops, One Priority: Payback
On 29 December 1941, a freezing night over occupied Bohemia and Moravia, three parachute teams dropped from a Halifax bomber toward their homeland. Operations Silver A and Silver B were tasked with restoring underground communications, supporting the resistance and sabotage. A third team carried the top-priority mission, Operation Anthropoid, a direct strike at Reinhard Heydrich, Hitler’s executioner in Prague. The brief was brutal and clear: payback for Nazi terror.
Reinhard Heydrich in the uniform of an SS-Gruppenführer ca. 1940/1941 by Heinrich Hoffmann. Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1969-054-16, recoloured.
The Target
On 28 September 1941, Reinhard Heydrich arrived at Prague Castle. He was replacing Konstantin von Neurath, whom Hitler and Himmler agreed had been too lenient in his approach to the Czechs. Within five days of his arrival, Heydrich proclaimed martial law and ordered the execution of 142 people. Known by various nicknames such as the “Blonde Beast” and “Butcher of Prague”, SS-General Reinhard Heydrich ruled the Protectorate through a calculated campaign of fear. Backed by Hitler, he moved to crush the Czech resistance, decapitate the leadership, and break the nation’s spirit. He banned the Sokol movement and sent its leaders to the Mauthausen concentration camp.
The Sokol movement was a popular gymnastics movement that promoted health and well-being, and it was also linked to the promotion of Czech patriotism and nationalism. The movement was brutally suppressed and later banned during the Nazi occupation. According to Heydrich: “Czechs need to know who is the boss here… Those who adapt will be Germanised; those who won’t will be sent to concentration camps.” Anthropoid set out to end the experiment.
A Mission to Live in History
From London, the operation’s planners demanded more than an assassination; they wanted to make a statement that would resound in history. The Munich Agreement remained in effect, and the exiled government needed dramatic action to prove that the Czechs and Slovaks were contributing to the Allied cause. The operation had to break the perception of Czech passivity and defeatism and show the world that resistance continued. More crucially, it aimed to make it politically impossible for Britain to forge another peace deal with Germany and betray Czech interests once again.
Jan Kubiš and Jozef Gabčík in Britain, 1941—photographed before deployment on Operation Anthropoid.
A Belated Christmas Gift
After being dropped by parachute into occupied Bohemia, the SEO trained Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš moved to Prague. In preparation for their attack, weeks of surveillance were conducted: routes were timed, corners were measured, and rehearsals were repeated. The local resistance opened safe houses, passed messages, forged papers and whispered, with pride, that the paratroopers were a “belated Christmas gift that fell from the sky.” Hope had returned to a beaten city.
Heydrich’s Mercedes 320 Cabriolet after the blast at Libeň—shattered windscreen and torn bodywork from the 27 May 1942 Anthropoid attack.
Heydrich’s Curve
On the morning of 27 May 1942, Heydrich started his daily commute to his headquarters at Prague Castle. During the journey, Heydrich’s open-topped Mercedes 320 Cabriolet had to slow down at the tight bend in Libeň, known today as Heydrich’s Curve. Jozef Gabčík stepped into the road with a Sten submachine gun. At point-blank range, Gabčík could not miss, but when he squeezed the trigger, the weapon jammed and failed to fire. Rather than accelerate out of danger, Heydrich ordered his driver to stop. As Heydrich drew his pistol, Jan Kubiš hurled a hand grenade, which exploded by the rear wheel. The blast sent shards of metal and horsehair fibres from the car’s upholstery into Heydrich’s body. As shots cracked across the cobbles, driver Johannes Klein chased Gabčík on foot, leaving his mortally wounded boss prone in the street. The assassins slipped away. Despite the odds, the mission had succeeded.
A City Under the Jack Boot
Prague slammed shut, raids, curfews, and mass arrests swept the streets. The parachutists reached the Church of Saints Cyril and Methodius and took refuge in the crypt, a stone chamber with a single vent. On 4 June, Heydrich, after appearing to recover, suddenly died from infection and trauma. The men who had struck at the head of the Nazi oppression still lived for now.
10 June 1942 — Lidice
To terrorise the nation, the occupiers erased Lidice, a village with no connection to the assassination. One hundred seventy-three men were executed by firing squad. Most women were deported to the Ravensbrück concentration camp. Children were torn from their families; 82 were murdered in gas vans at Chełmno, while a few were selected for Germanisation. Homes were burned and bulldozed, the rubble scattered. The Nazis intended the name of Lidice to vanish forever. Instead, it became a worldwide rallying cry against Nazi tyranny.
The Last Stand in the Crypt
On 18 June 1942, the church was surrounded by German troops. Karel Čurda betrayed the network for Nazi blood money. At dawn, about seven hundred SS and Wehrmacht troops sealed off Resslova Street and launched their assault. Seven men stood ready inside the church. Upstairs, Adolf Opálka, Jan Kubiš, and Josef Bublík defended the nave and choir loft until two lay dying, and the last took his own life rather than surrender.
Down in the crypt, Jozef Gabčík, Josef Valčík, Jaroslav Švarc, and Jan Hrubý fought in near-total darkness as fire hoses flooded the chamber and tear gas choked the air. After seven hours of battle, with ammunition exhausted and water rising around them, they faced their final choice. They chose death over surrender. Witnesses would remember their defiant cry echoing from the stone chamber: “We are Czechs! We will never surrender!”
Why History Matters
This courage cost many lives; the alternative would have cost a nation’s future. Had Heydrich lived, terror in Prague would have tightened and resignation spread. Instead, Lidice showed the world the regime’s true face. Public outrage in Britain mounted; Britain terminated the Munich Agreement, France followed, and the revival of Czechoslovakia after the war moved from hope to commitment.
Operation Anthropoid still echoes at Heydrich’s Curve, at Lidice, and in the crypt on Resslova Street where, when reason said “submit,” seven men chose to stand for what they believed.
Historical Amnesia
Spanish philosopher George Santayana famously said, “Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.” Just a week ago, US President Donald Trump and Russian President Vladimir Putin met to discuss a possible settlement of the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy was not invited to the summit. In an echo of the Munich Betrayal, it seems Ukraine might be forced to trade territory for a peace agreement that no one expects Russia to respect.
Today, we see that despite widespread knowledge of Munich's consequences, historical awareness alone is not enough to prevent conflict. Each generation must actively choose to learn from the past or be doomed to repeat it.
Martina Gregorcová and Operation Anthropoid Tours
This guest blog was co-authored by Martina Gregorcová, Managing Director at Art of Your Travel agency, and a tour guide. Czechoslovak Resistance Tours, part of Art of Your Travel, is a specialised tour company that focuses exclusively on Czechoslovak World War II resistance history, notably the 1942 assassination of Reinhard Heydrich. The company offers private, custom-made historical tours throughout Prague and the surrounding areas, including significant sites like Lidice, Ležáky, Pardubice, and Terezín.
The company’s tours follow the actual footsteps of the resistance fighters involved in Operation Anthropoid and related missions, providing immersive historical experiences with expert local guides. The company positions itself around telling the “untold truth” of these resistance efforts, covering everything from the planning and execution of the assassination to the brutal Nazi reprisals and the lasting legacy of these acts of defiance. To learn more, visit the company’s website:
References:
BBC: Chamberlain returns from Munich
IWM: How Britain Hoped To Avoid War With Germany In The 1930s
Radio Prague International: Anthropoid: Czechoslovakia’s greatest resistance story
Radio Prague International: How the Sokol movement helped Operation Anthropoid succeed
Further Reading:
You’ll Be Hearing From Us!: Operation Anthropoid - the assassination of SS-Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich and its consequences (2019), by Niall Cherry (Author), Tony Moseley (Contributor), Jonathan Saunders (Contributor), John Howes (Contributor)
The Assassination of Reinhard Heydrich: The True Story Behind Operation Anthropoid (2007) by Callum Macdonald
Images in order of appearance:
British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, after landing at Heston Aerodrome following his meeting with Adolf Hitler and the signing of the infamous Munich Agreement. Ministry of Information official photographer. This photograph, D 2239, comes from the collections of the Imperial War Museums.
Heydrich, Reinhard: as a SS-Gruppenführer, Leiter des SD, Chef des Reichssicherheitshauptamtes (RSHA), Deutschland. Author: Hoffmann, Heinrich. Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1969-054-16, Recoloured.
Jan Kubiš and Jozef Gabčík in Britain, 1941—photographed before deployment on Operation Anthropoid.
Heydrich’s Mercedes 320 Cabriolet after the blast at Libeň—shattered windscreen and torn bodywork from the 27 May 1942 Anthropoid attack.
Gallery
Libeň’s “Heydrich Curve” — the bend where, on 27 May 1942, his Mercedes slowed and Gabčík and Kubiš struck.
Orthodox Cathedral of Saints Cyril and Methodius (Prague). Author: Yair Haklai
National Monument to the Heroes of the Heydrich Terror, underground crypt of the Baroque Church of Sts Cyril and Methodius. The refuge of the Czechoslovak parachutists from 27 May to 18 June 1942 after the attack on Reinhard Heydrich.
Busts of Josef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš in the National Memorial of the Heroes of the Heydrichiada (Prague, Czechia). Author: Ondřej Žváček.
Kobylisy memorial—the 1942 execution ground where hundreds of Czech patriots were shot; a quiet lawn that holds a besieged city’s memory.
Legasee's Mission to Record Britain's Berlin Airlift Veterans
Dick Arscott passed away in 2020. Only after his passing, did his granddaughter Kate discover the full extent of his service as an RAF pilot during the Berlin Airlift through a 2013 interview he gave to Legasee Educational Trust. That interview has now been brought to life in a powerful new podcast series, sharing Dick's voice and those of other veterans with a new generation.
The Berlin Blockade and Airlift of 1948-49 has faded from the public consciousness, but this pivotal Cold War mission kept a city alive and a war at bay. Through their work preserving veteran testimonies, Legasee ensures these crucial voices continue to educate and inspire future generations.
In 1982, the TV series Airline appeared on our screens. The series was set in post-war Britain and followed the exploits of Jack Ruskin (played by Roy Marsden), a former RAF pilot who starts his own air transport business. In the final episode of the series, Too Many Promises, the Berlin Airlift offers Ruskin an opportunity to save his fledgling company from financial ruin. Unfortunately, the planned second series of Airline was cancelled, and the viewing public never got to find out if Jack Ruskin succeeded.
The Berlin Blockade and Airlift of 1948-49 represented the first major confrontation of the Cold War, yet this pivotal humanitarian mission has faded from the public consciousness. The only feature film on the subject, The Big Lift (1950), which starred Montgomery Clift and Paul Douglas, is a curious piece of cinema history, also forgotten. The film, shot on location in Berlin, offers a rare, authentic glimpse of the city’s devastation, resilience, and Cold War realities.
Today, the UK’s Legasee Educational Trust, a registered charity dedicated to preserving the stories of British military veterans through filmed interviews, has returned to the subject of the Berlin Airlift.
The Forgotten Crisis of 1948
The Berlin Blockade emerged from mounting tensions following the Yalta Conference of February 1945, where the USA, Great Britain and USSR discussed the reorganisation of post-war Europe. Perhaps inevitably, Berlin proved a flashpoint in the developing Cold War.
Since the end of the war in Europe in May 1945, Germany had been divided into four zones of occupation, each controlled by one of the Allies. The German capital, Berlin, lay inside the Russian zone and was also divided into four zones of occupation. Access to Berlin for the Allies was by way of road, rail and canals, and via three specific air corridors.
Soviet leader Joseph Stalin wanted to keep Germany weak and use it as a buffer zone between the USSR and the West. The Western powers saw things differently. Learning lessons from the Treaty of Versailles, they did not want to see Germany financially crippled again. This meant introducing a new, stable currency and more jobs for workers in the Western sectors.
The crisis escalated when the Western Allies began using Marshall Aid funds to rebuild the German economy, introduced stable currency, and created 'Bizonia' by joining the British and American zones in 1947. On 24 June 1948, Stalin responded by cutting all land access to Berlin, leaving the city accessible only by air and creating critical shortages - West Berlin possessed merely 36 days' worth of food supplies.
The Berlin Airlift represented the first practical test of American containment policy to prevent the spread of communism. Rather than forcing passage by land and risking another war, the Allies chose to supply their sectors through air corridors. This operation continued for eleven months until the blockade's conclusion in May 1949.
Operation Plainfare: Britain’s Contribution
Despite the scale of the operation, the British contribution has often been overlooked. At the airlift's height, aircraft landed at Berlin's Templehof Airport every minute, with the operation costing the USA $350 million and Britain £17 million. The Allies initially aimed to transport 4,500 tons of supplies daily, increasing this target to 5,000 tons by autumn 1948, with coal comprising a substantial portion of the tonnage required for the city's energy needs.
British forces mobilised the Royal Air Force and contracted twenty-five additional charter companies to transport primarily oil and gasoline into the city. Beyond their approximately 23 per cent share of total freight tonnage, the British assumed responsibility for the majority of passenger transport during the blockade.
Legasee's Archive of Service
Legasee was founded by Martin Bisiker, a videographer whose personal mission began when his grandfather passed away without sharing his experiences as a Desert Rat. The organisation has created the largest freely available film archive of British military veterans online, conducting filmed interviews that capture stories in veterans’ own words.
Between 2012 and 2013, with support from the Heritage Lottery Fund, Legasee captured fifty interviews with British veterans who participated in the airlift - pilots, ground crew, engineers, and support staff. Working alongside the British Berlin Airlift Association, the Norfolk & Suffolk Aviation Museum, and Bungay High School, the project created a permanent exhibition commemorating the 65th anniversary of the airlift.
Individual Stories of Service
The recently launched podcast series The Veterans' Voice: Berlin Airlift draws from these archived interviews. The four-episode series chronicles the progression from rising tensions through ultimate victory in the skies:
Episode 1 features Terence Crowley, Jean Eastham, Tom Holland, Tom Henshaw and Fred Danckwardt recalling the uncertain atmosphere of post-war Germany and early signs of the looming blockade. Episode 2 covers the immediate response to the June 1948 blockade, with veterans Jean Eastham, Leo Hatcher, David Edwards, Len Hurst, Tom Holland and Fred Danckwardt describing the chaos, pressure and resolve of those initial days.
The third episode documents the winter escalation, as John Eddy, Dick Arscott, Leo Hatcher, Larry Lamb, David Edwards and Fred Danckwardt recount the operation's massive scale, dangerous flying conditions, and essential camaraderie. The final episode features Tom Holland, John Curtis, Dick Arscott, Fred Danckwardt, Freddie Montgomery and William Ball reflecting on the airlift's ultimate success and their later welcome back to Berlin by the people whose lives they had helped preserve.
Dick Arscott's Legacy
Among these voices stands that of Dick Arscott, whose story exemplifies both the operation's human dimension and the challenge of preserving veteran testimony. Arscott was one of the RAF pilots flying Dakotas into Berlin's precarious corridors, enduring freezing conditions, constant Soviet harassment, and relentless pressure while maintaining professionalism and determination.
Arscott passed away in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic, when restrictions meant only his children and their partners could attend his funeral. His granddaughter Kate discovered the full extent of his service through his 2013 Legasee interview. She noted: “To us, he was just Grandpa... Family was at the heart of his life, and gatherings were filled with his steady presence, gentle humour, and stories that rarely touched on his wartime experiences”.
The interview revealed previously unshared details of Arscott’s character, including an incident where “he once flew a Meteor jet under the Clifton Suspension Bridge, an act for which he was 'severely reprimanded', but which brings a smile to the family.” Kate Arscott observed: “He also used to borrow an aircraft just to fly home and see my grandma for the weekend. It's typical of the devotion and quiet daring that defined him.”
Watch A Veteran Interview with Dick Arscott. Interview by Martin Bisiker. Legasee, 9 Nov. 2012.
West Germany and the Soviet Collapse
The Cold War nation of West Germany, officially known as the Federal Republic of Germany, was established on 23 May 1949, by a declaration of the German Parliamentary Council, which represented the former zones of occupation held by the United States, Great Britain, and France after World War II. West Germany was an essential part of the American and Western European economic and military shield against the Soviets and their Eastern European satellites during the decades of the Cold War.
Forty years and six months later, the fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989 marked the beginning of the end of the Cold War and the Soviet Union. Soviet-occupied East Germany, officially known as the German Democratic Republic, was reunited with West Germany on 3 October 1990. The Soviet Union collapsed a year later. Regrettably, the initial optimism that surrounded the collapse of the USSR quickly dissipated in a storm of economic instability, corruption, political, ethnic and nationalistic tensions and violence.
Preserving Historical Memory
Martin Bisiker, Legasee's founder, emphasised the broader significance: “Dick was part of one of the greatest logistical efforts in modern history, but the individual stories of those men and women who served are rarely told.” The Berlin Airlift succeeded without military force, resolving the first Cold War crisis through logistical means, though not without casualties - at least 78 people died in aircraft accidents, their names engraved on the Airlift Memorial in Berlin's Tempelhof district.
Legasee's mission remains essential: these stories represent “primary source material that offer unique insights into military service, personal resilience, and the social history of their times.” As the generation that lived through these events passes away, organisations like Legasee provide the crucial link, ensuring their experiences continue to educate and inspire future generations.
The project received support from The National Lottery Heritage Fund and the Armed Forces Covenant Fund Trust, reflecting recognition of the urgent need to “record and share the lived experiences of British veterans before they are lost to time.” Through their work, individual voices like Dick Arscott's continue speaking to new audiences, preserving both the operational history and human dimension of this defining Cold War episode.
The Veterans' Voice: Berlin Airlift podcast series is available on major platforms, accompanied by the complete digital archive of filmed interviews at www.Legasee.org.uk.
References:
Ysselsteyn German War Cemetery: A Complex Memorial Site
In this blog article, discover Ysselsteyn - the Netherlands' only German WWII cemetery holding 32,000+ graves, including Wehrmacht soldiers, SS officers, and war criminals who terrorized occupied Holland.
The Ysselsteyn German War Cemetery in the Netherlands is the largest Second World War German cemetery and the only German military cemetery in the country. Located near Venray (the area saw bitter fighting during Operation Aintree between the end of September and into October 1944) in Limburg province, this 28-hectare (69-acre) cemetery was established in 1946 by the Dutch war graves commission (Nederlandse Gravendienst) following the German occupation of the Netherlands from May 1940 to May 1945.
Who is Buried Here?
The cemetery contains over 32,000 burials from around 25 different nationalities, including:
87 German soldiers from the First World War whose bodies floated down rivers to the Netherlands
Approximately 32,000 Second World War casualties
Wehrmacht and SS soldiers, Dutch collaborators, supporters from other nations, and civilians, including women and children
Over 5,000 unknown burials marked as "Ein Deutscher Soldat" (A German Soldier)
Ysselsteyn: Netherlands' only German WWII cemetery.
The Dark Reality
According to a plaque at the site, recent research reveals that approximately 2,000 to 3,000 of those buried were actively involved in war crimes, including the systematic persecution and murder of 102,000 Jews (mostly Dutch), as well as Sinti and Roma people. About 3,000 of the burials were soldiers detailed to occupation duties, including razzias, deportations, illegal incarceration, and Jew-hunting. Notable among the buried is Julius Dettmann, an SS officer who deported Anne Frank and her family from their hiding place in Amsterdam.
Modern Management and Purpose
In 1976, the Dutch government transferred administration of the cemetery to the German War Graves Commission (Volksbund Deutsche Kriegsgräberfürsorge). Today, the site serves as an international education centre that promotes peace and mutual understanding, complete with a visitor centre and youth meeting centre.
The Konstantin Benzien Story
In December 1943, German fighter pilot Unteroffizier Konstantin Benzien crashed his Messerschmitt Bf 109 into a butcher's shop in Opeinde, Friesland, after aerial combat with American bombers. For 79 years, his identity remained unknown, and his remains were buried in an unnamed grave at Ysselsteyn cemetery. Researchers from the Missing Airmen Memorial Foundation finally solved the mystery using DNA extracted from envelope glue that his sister had licked decades earlier when sending letters. The DNA from the glue matched samples from the pilot's recovered bones, allowing German authorities to officially identify him and give his grave a proper headstone with his name.
Ongoing Controversy
The cemetery remains controversial, with protests from groups like the Dutch Anti-Fascists' League and Jewish organisations opposing commemorative events. The site occasionally receives visits from neo-Nazis, highlighting the ongoing tension between remembrance and the glorification of those who committed atrocities.
This cemetery represents a complex memorial site that serves both as a final resting place and a stark reminder of the atrocities of war, emphasising the importance of learning from history. Sadly, with war raging in Ukraine and across the globe, it seems some lessons remain outside human comprehension.
References:
Youth and Educational Meeting Centre Ysselsteyn
Clipped Wings: Red Tape and Command Failures during the Falklands Air War
Commander “Sharkey” Ward commanded 801 Naval Air Squadron aboard HMS Invincible during the Falklands. He served as senior Sea Harrier adviser to the command on tactics and air war direction, flew over 60 CAP (combat air patrol) missions, achieved three air-to-air kills, and participated in or witnessed ten kills. He was decorated with the Distinguished Service Cross for gallantry. In 1992, Pen & Sword published his book, Sea Harrier Over the Falklands.
The book is Ward's dramatic first-hand story of the air war in the South Atlantic. It is also an extraordinarily outspoken account of inter-service rivalries, bureaucratic interference, and dangerous ignorance of the realities of air combat among many senior commanders.
In the spring of 1982, most British people knew Argentina primarily from the hit musical Evita by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice. And if British people didn’t know much about Argentina, they knew even less about an obscure group of islands in the South Atlantic Ocean known as the Falklands.
I was sixteen years old in 1982, and just like everyone else, I was surprised to wake up one morning in early April to discover that the British inhabitants of the Falkland Islands had been invaded and occupied by Argentine armed forces. Initially, no one seemed too concerned, and a diplomatic resolution looked the most likely outcome of the crisis. However, things took a dramatic turn when Margaret Thatcher’s government, which had badly misjudged the intentions of Argentina’s military junta and its leader, General Leopoldo Galtieri, announced Britain would immediately dispatch a naval task force to recover the islands.
On 5 April 1982, a hastily organised armada set sail from British waters to steam around 8,000 miles to the South Atlantic. The timing of the crisis proved advantageous for the unpopular Thatcher government, which was busy pulling the fangs of Britain’s armed forces with sweeping defence cuts, which included selling off or decommissioning numerous Royal Navy warships and support vessels. If Galtieri had waited to launch his invasion until the following year, then Prime Minister Thatcher would have been forced into a humiliating surrender of the territory. But Galtieri and the junta had domestic woes of their own and hoped capturing the “Islas Malvinas” would be a suitable distraction for their unhappy compatriots. Argentina’s military planners saw Britain’s defence cuts as a green light for invasion, assuming Thatcher’s government would acquiesce once the Falklands were under Argentine control.
As the task force steamed toward its date with destiny, Britain’s tabloid press had a field day whipping the country into a patriotic frenzy. At the same time, the US Secretary of State, Alexander Haig, flew backwards and forwards between London, Washington and Buenos Aires, attempting to find a peaceful resolution to the crisis. On 21 May 1982, the task force arrived off the Falklands. Haig’s “shuttle diplomacy” had failed, and the shooting started. Every lunchtime, a couple of school friends and I would walk to my sister’s flat to watch the one o’clock news. We would sit and listen in silence to the slow, deliberate, monotone voice of Ian McDonald, the official Ministry of Defence spokesman, who would deliver good and bad news in the same deadpan tone. Once the fighting started, the tabloid press printed dramatic, sometimes shocking photographs, such as HMS Antelope exploding in San Carlos Bay.
HMS Antelope explodes after being the subject of repeated air attacks in ‘bomb alley’ in San Carlos Water, the Falkland Islands. Photograph courtesy of Royal Navy News www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news/
At the time, my sister was married to a member of the 1st Battalion, Scots Guards. The 1st Battalion was not part of the task force, but the 2nd Battalion was sent south. On the night of 13–14 June, the Guards launched an offensive against the strategically important Mount Tumbledown and the surrounding high ground. The Guards forced the Argentine troops off the mountain and back into the Falkland’s Capital of Port Stanley. The 2nd Battalion, Scots Guards, suffered eight dead and 43 wounded. The Guards took 30 prisoners while the bodies of 30 Argentine soldiers and marines were later recovered from the battlefield. For us, every television, radio and newspaper report carried weight and meaning.
As events unfolded, we initially focused on the naval actions and then the land battles to recapture the islands. My memories of the air war over the Falklands are vague. I do not recall being aware that our carrier-based Sea Harriers were outnumbered around ten to one. Only now, 43 years after the Argentine surrender, have I learned a little about what the courageous pilots of the Fleet Air Arm contributed to the safety of the task force and ultimate victory in the Falklands War.
Commander “Sharkey” Ward commanded 801 Naval Air Squadron aboard HMS Invincible during the Falklands. He served as senior Sea Harrier adviser to the command on tactics and air war direction, flew over 60 CAP (combat air patrol) missions, achieved three air-to-air kills, and participated in or witnessed ten kills. He was decorated with the Distinguished Service Cross for gallantry. In 1992, Pen & Sword published his book, Sea Harrier Over the Falklands.
The book is Ward's dramatic first-hand story of the air war in the South Atlantic. It is also an extraordinarily outspoken account of inter-service rivalries, bureaucratic interference, and dangerous ignorance of the realities of air combat among many senior commanders. Ward reveals how the pilots of the 801 Squadron found themselves fighting more than the enemy, experiencing exhaustion, atrocious weather, and prejudice and ignorance on their own side.
Prewar development of the Harrier as a carrier-borne fighter receives detailed examination under Ward's supervision and guidance. The Sea Harrier (SHAR) was a single-seat, subsonic VSTOL (vertical and/or short take-off and landing) fighter, reconnaissance, and strike aircraft. It was armed with Sidewinder air-to-air missiles and 30mm Aden cannon and could also be fitted with bombs, rockets, and Lepus flares.
Particularly noteworthy are the extensive details about the Sea Harriers' capabilities, especially the advanced Ferranti Blue Fox radar system, which Ward insisted his pilots master, while other squadrons underutilised and mistrusted it.
During Operation Corporate, the codename for the British military operation to reclaim the Falkland Islands, the Harriers undertook multiple critical tasks. The SHAR provided continuous CAP protection for the task force. Ward also offers detailed accounts of the numerous challenges in flying and fighting the Harrier from an aircraft carrier.
Central to Ward's argument is the contention that had he followed all his instructions to the letter, Britain might well have lost the Falklands War. The book is highly critical of various aspects of the British command structure, especially the Flag Officer, the admiral in operational control of the fleet aboard HMS Hermes, Rear Admiral (later Admiral) Sir John "Sandy" Woodward.
Especially scathing criticism targets the RAF, senior naval commanders, and even pilots from the other Sea Harrier squadron (800 Squadron on HMS Hermes). He is particularly scornful of the RAF's Operation Black Buck. These missions saw the RAF deploy ageing Vulcan bombers, which involved in-flight refuelling by Victor tankers, aimed at disrupting Argentine air operations by targeting the runway at Port Stanley. According to Ward's calculations, the Vulcan attacks on Port Stanley airfield consumed hundreds of thousands of gallons of expensive aviation fuel at the taxpayers' expense so that the RAF could drop a handful of bombs, which caused minimal damage.
Most damning of all, Ward contends that the RAF launched three V-bomber missions, which achieved next to nothing and consumed 400,000 gallons of fuel. That fuel could have supported 785 bombing sorties from the Carrier Group and would have delivered 2,357 bombs. Apparently, during one of the RAF's missions, 20 of the bombs dropped on Port Stanley air strip failed to explode because someone forgot to arm them. A Vulcan mission was scrubbed on another occasion due to a cabin depressurisation problem. When the aircraft in question returned to Ascension Island, it was found that the cause of the 'pressurisation failure' had been that one of the cockpit windows had been left open.
The military effectiveness of Black Buck remains a matter of controversy. The Vulcan raids caused minimal damage to the runway, and the damage to the radars was quickly repaired. Nevertheless, many historians contend that the raids demonstrated Britain’s ability to attack the Argentine mainland. For this reason, squadrons of Mirage fighters were redeployed from the south to defend airfields and headquarters in northern Argentina.
Ward’s book addresses the question of what 20 Sea Harriers, operating from a flight deck in the South Atlantic, could do against more than 200 Argentine military aircraft flown by skilled and courageous pilots. Ward’s account provides insights into how this seemingly impossible victory was achieved.
The book is somewhat of a technical manual on Sea Harrier operations, which may not appeal to all readers. It is also a controversial insider’s critique of British military command during one of modern naval warfare's most significant air campaigns. Regrettably, Ward’s descriptions of inter-service rivalries, leadership failures, MoD interference, penny-pinching on defence and the shameful waste of taxpayers’ money have become the all-too-familiar hallmarks of successive British governments.
The Falklands War lasted 74 days. On 14 June 1982, Argentine forces surrendered. Argentina’s military gamble cost the lives of 649 military personnel. The recovery of the Falklands led to the deaths of 255 British military personnel and three islanders.
General Galtieri, who led Argentina into the Falklands War, was removed from power after the defeat. Margaret Thatcher’s popularity surged after the conflict, leading to her victory in the 1983 general election. Before the Falklands, Thatcher’s leadership of the Tory party was tenuous at best, and the Conservatives looked sure to lose the election. According to the Declassified UK website: “Just four days before Argentina’s invasion of the Falklands in April 1982, the British government was trying to sell the regime bomber airplanes.”
FROM HILDE, WITH LOVE: The Quiet Heroism of Nazi Resistance
Discover the true story behind "From Hilde, With Love" - how Hilde Coppi and the Red Orchestra resistance group fought against Nazi tyranny in 1940s Berlin. In UK cinemas 27 June 2025.
When Picturehouse Entertainment asked me to share information about their new film "From Hilde, With Love," I was eager to learn more about this story of courage during one of history's darkest periods. The film, directed by Andreas Dresen, will be released in UK cinemas on 27 June. I haven't seen the movie yet, so this is not a personal recommendation but an introduction to a piece of WWII history that is worthy of attention.
Hans and Hilde CoppiThe Real Story Behind the Film
"From Hilde, With Love" tells the true story of Hilde and Hans Coppi, members of an anti-Nazi resistance group known as the "Red Orchestra" (Die Rote Kapelle). Set in Berlin in 1942, the film follows shy Hilde as she falls in love with Hans and finds her place within this resistance network.
The Red Orchestra wasn't a formal organisation, as the name suggests. The term was coined by the Gestapo, who referred to resistance radio operators as "pianists," their transmitters as "pianos," and their supervisors as "conductors." This disparate network consisted of over 150 Berlin Nazi opponents from various backgrounds - artists, scientists, workers, and students - united by their rejection of National Socialism.
Hilde Coppi (née Rake) was born to a working-class family in Berlin on 30 May 1909. She met Hans Coppi, seven years her junior, through Communist resistance circles. Together, they engaged in acts of defiance that might seem small but required immense courage: distributing anti-Nazi leaflets, posting resistance messages on walls, and perhaps most dangerous of all, listening to Soviet radio broadcasts.
One of their important activities was listening to Moscow Radio for messages from German prisoners of war and forwarding them to their families in Germany. This directly countered Nazi propaganda claiming that Soviet forces didn't take prisoners but killed all German soldiers who surrendered.
In September 1942, the Gestapo arrested the couple. Hans was executed on 22 December 1942. Hilde, who was pregnant at the time of her arrest, gave birth to their son Hans in prison on 27 November 1942. Despite petitions for clemency, Hitler personally refused, and Hilde was beheaded at Plötzensee Prison on 5 August 1943, after being allowed to nurse her baby for several months.
Their son, Hans Coppi Jr., survived and was raised by his paternal grandparents. He went on to become a historian dedicated to researching the Red Orchestra and preserving the memory of German resistance to the Nazi regime.
The Film Adaptation
Director Andreas Dresen, who grew up in East Germany, deliberately avoids portraying the Red Orchestra members as superheroes or making them symbols of any political ideology. Instead, he presents them as ordinary young people with a conscience, making their story more relatable and their bravery more profound.
"From Hilde, With Love" stars Liv Lisa Fries (known from "Babylon Berlin") as Hilde and Johannes Hegemann as Hans. The film alternates between scenes of their summer romance and Hilde's time in prison, creating a powerful contrast between moments of joy and the brutal reality of living under a totalitarian regime.
The film premiered in Competition at the 74th Berlin International Film Festival in February 2024 and received strong reviews. Writing in Variety, Catherine Bray praised Fries for her "subtle but layered performance." She highlighted how cinematographer Judith Kaufmann's work effectively contrasts the "sylvan charms" of the resistance group's summer hangouts with the stark prison environment. Bray concluded that although "From Hilde, with Love" is set almost eighty years ago, "the themes explored seem destined to remain eternally urgent and relevant."
Variety's review also touches on a poignant historical detail. Despite the group's efforts and risks, only one of their messages to Moscow ever made it through, and it simply said, "We wish our friends the very best." This underscores the human dimension of their resistance rather than its tactical impact.
Historical Context: The Red Orchestra
The history of the Red Orchestra was misrepresented for decades. During the Cold War, West German narratives often portrayed them as Soviet spies and traitors, while East Germany elevated them to the status of Communist heroes.
In reality, the group was more complex and diverse. While some members had Communist sympathies, others were conservative nationalists, Catholics, or simply individuals opposed to the Nazi regime. Their activities included distributing leaflets, documenting Nazi crimes, helping Jews escape, and, yes, transmitting military intelligence to the Allies.
By 1942, the Gestapo had infiltrated the network, leading to over 120 arrests. More than fifty members were executed, including the Coppis. Despite the ultimate tragic fate of many members, their courage in standing against tyranny reminds us that resistance is possible even in the most dangerous circumstances.
Does This Film Matter Today?
At a time when extremism and authoritarianism are on the rise globally, stories like Hilde and Hans Coppi's remind us of the importance of moral courage and the power of individual conscience. Their story shows that resistance does not always come in dramatic forms, but sometimes in small acts of defiance and quiet integrity.
"From Hilde, With Love" is a historical drama that explores love, resistance, and the strength of the human spirit in the face of oppression.
Sources: Historical information gathered from Wikipedia articles on Hans Coppi, Hilde Coppi, and the Red Orchestra; the German Resistance Memorial Centre website; The History Learning Site; Encyclopedia.com; and various film reviews from Variety, The Hollywood Reporter, and Reuters.
Diplomats & Admirals: The Origins of the Pacific War
In this military history book review, I examine 'Diplomats & Admirals' by Dale A. Jenkins - a fascinating look at how diplomatic failures led to Pearl Harbour and the Pacific War. Jenkins, a former US Navy officer, reveals how close Japan and America came to avoiding conflict in 1941. His analysis shows how personal ambition, institutional rigidity and communication failures among key figures on both sides derailed opportunities for peace. Despite having the world’s most powerful navy in 1941, Japan's leadership understood that a war with America would likely result in defeat.
Diplomats & Admirals by Dale A. Jenkins (Aubrey Publishing Co., New York, 2022) offers a fresh perspective on one of the most studied periods of World War Two, focusing particularly on the diplomatic manoeuvring that preceded the outbreak of war between Japan and the United States. Jenkins, a former U.S. Navy officer with extensive experience in the Pacific region and later careers in international banking and Council on Foreign Relations, brings both military and diplomatic insights to this compelling story.
The book’s greatest strength lies in its detailed examination of the diplomatic efforts to prevent war in the Pacific. Jenkins meticulously documents the complex web of personalities, policies, and missed opportunities that ultimately led to conflict. His portrayal of key figures such as Japan’s Prince Konoe, Foreign Minister Matsuoka, and US Secretary of State Cordell Hull reveals how personal ambition and rigid thinking often trumped rational diplomacy. Particularly telling is his description of Matsuoka, who “was interested, not in promoting the interests of Japan, but rather those of Matsuoka Yosuke,” and who was willing to “gamble the future of Japan and its seventy-seven million people” for his own political advancement.
Jenkins presents several fascinating “what-if” scenarios where war might have been avoided. One particularly striking example involves the Dutch East Indies oil negotiations, where Jenkins suggests that “willingness to allow a modest flow of oil could have precluded the Japanese invasions” and potentially removed the threat of Japanese economic collapse that drove them toward war.
The book’s treatment of the military aspects of the conflict, while competent, covers more familiar ground. However, Jenkins still manages to provide interesting insights, particularly in his analysis of the Japanese naval leadership’s persistent attachment to battleship warfare despite the rising dominance of aircraft carriers in naval engagements. This is notably illustrated in his discussion of Admiral Yamamoto’s planning for the Battle of Midway, where “despite his development of the carrier force, its unprecedented attack on Pearl Harbor (sic), and its victories in the south Pacific and Indian Ocean prior to Midway, Yamamoto compulsively remained a battleship admiral.”
One of the book’s most valuable contributions is its examination of the communication failures between different branches of government and military services. A prime example is Jenkins’ observation that Hull’s diplomatic stonewalling tactics stemmed partly from “the mistaken belief that in a war with Japan US forces would prevail in a few months,” noting that “taking five minutes to talk with Admiral Stark on the power of the Japanese navy never occurred to him.”
The narrative is strengthened by Jenkins’ ability to weave together the personal, political, and military aspects of the story. His background in both naval service and international affairs allows him to provide nuanced analysis of both the diplomatic scheming and military operations.
Today, it is easy to forget that back in 1941, Japan possessed the world’s most powerful navy and some of the most advanced aircraft. As Jenkins notes, the Japanese had developed “carrier operations and armaments that were, at that time, the most advanced in the world,” including the highly manoeuvrable Mitsubishi A6M Zero long range fighter. Meanwhile, the U.S. Navy was struggling with obsolete equipment - Jenkins points out that “in the early months of the war, the US Pacific Fleet was hampered by obsolete torpedo planes and hopelessly ineffective World War I torpedoes.” The fact that American naval forces managed to achieve victory at Midway despite these disadvantages makes their triumph even more remarkable and a testament to the courage of their pilots.
Diplomats & Admirals serves as both a fascinating historical account and a cautionary tale, demonstrating how personal ambition, institutional rigidity and failures of communication can lead nations into unnecessary conflict. Many readers, even those familiar with the Pacific War, might be surprised by Jenkins’ revelations about the missed opportunities for peace and the tragic consequences that followed. This well researched work is a valuable addition to the literature on the Second World War, offering insights into the complex, often murky diplomatic negotiations that preceded a conflict which would ultimately cost 25 million lives.
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Image Attribution:
Wikipedia.org: An Imperial Japanese Navy Mitsubishi A6M2 “Zero” fighter on the aircraft carrier Akagi during the Pearl Harbor attack mission. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor#/media/File:A6M2_on_carrier_Akagi_1941.jpeg
Wikipedia.org: Secretary of State Cordell Hull (1887–1955) brought Japanese Ambassador Kichisaburō Nomura (1877–1964, left) and Special Envoy Saburō Kurusu (1886–1954, right) to the White House for a meeting with President Franklin Roosevelt (1882-1945) on 17 November 1941. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordell_Hull#/media/File:Hull,_Nomura_and_Kurusu_on_7_December_1941.jpg
Wikipedia.org: U.S. Navy Torpedo Squadron 6 (VT-6) Douglas TBD-1 Devastator aircraft are prepared for launching aboard the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise (CV-6) at about 0730-0740 hrs, 4 June 1942, Battle of Midway. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Midway#/media/File:Douglas_TBD-1_Devastators_of_VT-6_are_spotted_for_launch_aboard_USS_Enterprise_(CV-6)_on_4_June_1942_(80-G-41686).jpg
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